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Pk)tographic 

Sciences 
Corporation 


23  WEST  MAIN  STREET 

WEBSTER,  N.Y.  145bO 

(716)  873-4503 


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CIHM/ICMH 

Microfiche 

Series. 


CIHVI/ICMH 
Collection  de 
microfiches. 


Canadian  Institute  for  Historical  Microreproductions  /  Institut  Canadian  de  microreproductions  historiques 


Technical  and  Bibliographic  IMotas/Notas  tachniquas  at  bibliographiquas 


Tha  Instituta  has  attamptad  to  obtain  tha  bast 
original  copy  availabia  for  filming.  Faatures  of  this 
copy  which  may  ba  bibliographically  unique, 
which  may  altar  any  of  tha  imagas  in  tha 
raprodustion,  or  which  may  significantly  change 
tha  usual  method  of  filming,  are  checked  below. 


D 


Coloured  covers/ 
Couverture  de  couleur 


I      I    Covers  damaged/ 


Couverture  andommagie 

Covers  restored  and/or  laminated/ 
Couverture  restaur^  et/ou  pelliculie 

Cover  title  missing/ 

Le  titre  de  couverture  manque 

Coloured  maps/ 

Cartes  giographiquas  en  couleur 

Coloured  ink  (i.e.  other  than  blue  or  black)/ 
Encre  de  couleur  (i.e.  autre  que  bleue  ou  noire) 

Coloured  plates  and/or  illustrations/ 
Planches  et/ou  illustrations  en  couleur 

Bound  with  other  material/ 
Reli£  avec  d'autres  documents 


D 


D 


D 


Tight  binding  may  cause  shadows  or  distortion 
along  interior  margin/ 

La  re  liure  serree  peut  causer  de  I'ombre  ou  de  <a 
distorsion  le  long  de  la  marge  intirieure 

Blank  leaves  added  during  restoration  may 
appear  within  tha  text.  Whenever  possible,  these 
have  been  omitted  from  filming/ 
II  se  peut  que  certaines  pages  blanchaa  ajouties 
lors  d'une  restauration  apparaissent  dans  le  tsxte, 
mais,  lorsque  cela  Atait  possible,  ces  pages  n'ont 
pas  M  film^as. 

Additional  comments:/ 
Commentaires  suppldmantairas; 


L'Institut  a  microfilm*  le  maillaur  exempiaire 
qu'il  lui  a  it*  possible  da  sa  procurer.  Las  details 
de  cet  exempiaire  qui  sont  peut-dtre  uniques  du 
point  de  vue  bibliographique,  qui  peuvant  modifier 
une  image  reproduite,  ou  qui  pauvent  exiger  una 
modification  dans  la  mithoda  normale  de  filmage 
sont  indiquis  ci-dessous. 


r~n    Coloured  pages/ 


Pages  de  couleur 

Pages  damaged/ 
Pages  endommagdes 

Pages  restored  and/oi 

Pages  restaurdas  et/ou  pelliculies 

Pages  discoloured,  stained  or  foxe( 
Pages  d6color*es,  tachaties  ou  piquies 

Pages  detached/ 
Pages  d*tach*es 

Showthroughy 
Transparence 

Quality  of  prir 

Qualit*  inigala  de  I'impression 

Includes  supplementary  matarit 
Comprend  du  materiel  supplementaire 

Only  edition  available/ 
Seule  Edition  disponible 


""n  Pages  damaged/ 

I      I  Pages  restored  and/or  laminated/ 

r~7  Pages  discoloured,  stained  or  foxed/ 

I      I  Pages  detached/ 

FT]  Showthrough/ 

I      I  Quality  of  print  varies/ 

I      I  Includes  supplementary  material/ 

I      I  Only  edition  available/ 


1 
a 

1 

V 

^ 

d 
e 
b 
ri 
ri 
n 


D 


Pages  wholly  or  partially  obscured  by  errata 
slips,  tissues,  etc.,  have  been  ref limed  to 
ensure  the  best  possible  image/ 
Les  pages  totalement  ou  partieilement 
obscurcies  par  un  feuillet  d'errata,  une  pelure. 
etc.,  ont  iti  film6es  i  nouveau  de  facon  i 
obtenir  la  meilleure  image  possible. 


This  item  is  filmed  at  the  reduction  ratio  checked  below/ 

Ce  document  est  fil.n*  au  taux  de  reduction  indiqu*  ci-dessous. 

10X  14X  18X  22X 


J 


12X 


16X 


20X 


26X 


30X 


24X 


9fly 


] 


Th«  copy  filmed  h«r«  has  be«n  raproducsd  thanks 
to  tha  ganarosity  of: 

L^islature  du  Quebec 
Quebec 

Tha  imagas  appaar<ng  hara  ara  tha  bast  quciity 
possibia  considaring  tha  condition  and  iagibility 
of  tha  original  copy  and  in  Icaaping  with  tha 
filming  contract  spacifications. 


Original  copies  in  printed  paper  covers  are  filmed 
beginning  with  the  front  cover  and  ending  on 
the  last  page  with  a  printed  or  illustrated  impres- 
sion, or  the  bacic  cover  when  appropriate.  All 
other  original  eopiea  are  filmed  beginning  on  the 
first  page  with  a  printed  or  illuatratad  imprea- 
sion,  and  ending  on  tha  last  page  with  a  printed 
or  illuatratad  impression. 


The  last  recorded  frame  on  each  microfiche 
shall  contain  the  symbol  —» (meaning  "CON- 
TINUED ),  or  the  symbol  V  (meaning  "END"), 
whichever  appiiea. 

l\Maps.  platea,  charts,  etc..  may  be  filmed  at 
different  reduction  ratioa.  Those  too  large  to  be 
entirely  included  in  one  exposure  are  filmed 
beginning  in  the  upper  left  hand  comer,  left  to 
right  and  top  to  bottom,  as  many  framea  aa 
required.  The  following  diagrama  illustrate  the 
method: 


L'axbmplaira  filmA  fut  reproduit  grice  it  la 
gin^rosit*  de: 

Legislature  du  Quebec 
Quebec 

Las  images  suivantea  ont  «t«  raproduites  avac  le 
plua  grand  soin.  compta  tenu  de  la  condition  at 
de  la  nattet*  da  I'axemplaira  film«,  at  en 
conformity  avac  las  conditions  du  contrat  de 
filmaga. 

Lea  axemplairea  originaux  dont  la  couverture  sn 
papier  eat  imprimte  sont  filmte  an  commanpant 
par  le  premier  plat  at  en  terminant  soit  par  la 
darniire  page  qui  aomporte  une  ampreinte 
d'Impreaaion  ou  d'iilustration,  soit  par  la  second 
plat,  salon  le  eaa.  Tous  las  autras  axampiaires 
originaux  sont  filmte  an  commandant  par  la 
premiere  page  qui  comporte  une  ampreinte 
d'impreesion  ou  d'iilustration  at  en  terminant  par 
la  derniAre  page  qui  comporte  une  telle 
emprajnte. 

Un  dee  symboies  suivants  apparaitra  sur  la 
damiAre  image  de  cheque  microfiche,  seion  le 
caa:  le  symbols  — ^  signifie  "A  SUIVRE ',  le 
symbols  V  signifie  "FIN". 

Las  cartes,  planches,  tableaux,  etc.,  pauvent  dt-a 
fllmte  A  dee  taux  de  rMuction  diffirents. 
Lorsque  le  document  est  trop  grand  pour  dtre 
reproduit  en  un  saul  cllchA.  il  est  fiimi  d  partir 
da  I'angle  supAriaur  gauche,  de  gauche  i  droite. 
et  de  haut  en  baa.  sn  prenant  le  nombre 
d'imeges  nteessaire.  lies  diagrammes  suivants 
illuatrent  la  m^thoda. 


1  2  3 


1 

2 

3 

5 

6 

ADDRESS 


OK 


JAMES    BlCllKNO    MIANCIS, 


ri{E.SIJ)ENT 


OK  TllK 


American  Society  of  Civil  Engineers, 


AT 


Tiri^  tiiiutfj:\tii  axxi^ai:  convkxtion 

or    THE    SOCIETY, 


^. 


AT  MOXriiKAL,  JUNE  15,  1S81. 


LOWKLI,,    MASS.: 
STONK,  liAClIELLIiK  X;  1,1  \  1 NCSTON,  I'lUXTliKS,  JACKSON  STUliET, 

1881. 


f 


i:~ii»'.i>- <^  ■>"•* 


'■trimXtigSim 


I  irriiiiwiiiifwtiiiniinmiiiiiiinrii 


wsm^sma^ 


SI 


i 


ADDRESS. 


You  have  assombled  in  convention  for  the  first 
time,  outside  the  limits  of  the  United  States,  and  I 
congratuhitc  you  on  tlie  selection  of  this  beautiful 
city,  in  which,  and  its  immediate  neighborhood, 
there  are  so  manv  interesting:  eni»:ineerin<j  works, 
constructed  witli  the  skill  and  solidity  characteristic 
of  the  British  school  of  engineering.  Nine  of  our 
members  are  Canadian  Engineers,  which  must  })e 
the  excuse  of  the  other  members  for  invading  foreiirn 
territory 

The  Society  was  organized  November  3,  1852,  and 
actively  maintained  up  to  March  2,  1855.  Eleven 
only  of  the  })resent  mend»ers  date  from  this  period. 
October  2,  1807  the  Society  was  reorganized  on  a 
wider  basis,  and  from  that  time  to  the  })resent, 
it  has  been  constantly  increasing  in  interest  and 
usefulness. 

The  membership  of  the  Society  is  now  as  follows : 


Tlonorarv  Motnbors     . 

.     11 

('orrcspoiidin^ 

IMc'inbors 

.       3 

IMc'inht'is 

. 

.  491 

Associates   . 

1         • 

.     21 

Juniors         , 

•         «         • 

.     57 

I'^ollows 

•         •         • 

.     53 

Total 


636 


*i 


•!W"B^PHipill» 


•^mufii^nmmm 


Diiriii^^  the  last  year  we  liavo  lost  six  inoini)ors 
by  death  and  live  by  resi^-natioii.  and  liTty-six  new 
nienihcrs  have  ))een  elected  and  (lualilied. 

The  most  Interesting-  event  to  the  Society  since 
the  last  convention,  has  heen  liie  ])urchase  of  a, 
house  in  the  City  of  New  York,  as  a  permanent,  home, 
at  a  cost  of  ^;)0.,000.  Tiiis  has  heen  acconi])lished.  so 
far.  without  taxinj;  the  resources  of  the  Society,  the 
required  payments  havin*::  heen  met  by  subscri|)tion. 
The  sum  of  $11,000  had  heen  subscrihed  to  the 
building  fund  up  to  the  2-'»th  ultimo,  hy  seventy 
members  and  twenty-nine  frii'uds  of  tiie  Society 
who  were  not  nuMuhers.  Tiic  subscription  is  still 
open,  and  it  is  expected  that  hu'Lje  additions  will 
be  made  to  it  by  memhers  and  their  friends,  to 
enable  the  Society  to  make  the  i-emaininj;'  payments 
without  embarrassment. 

Meetin"'s  of  the  Societv  are  held  twice  in  each 
month  durin.t;-  ten  months  in  the  year,  for  the  readin.ijj 
and  discussion  of  papers,  and  other  pur|)oses.  The 
new  house  aiVords  mu(di  better  accommodations  for 
these  purposes  than  we  have  ever  Inul  before,  and 
also  for  the  lihrary.  which  now  contains  S.8')0 
books  and  pami)hlets  and  is  constantly  increasin»j;. 
A  cataloiijue  of  the  lihrary  is  bcin^  prepared.  Part 
I.,  embracing  IJailroads  and  the  Transactions  of 
Scientific  Societies,  has  been  printed  and  furnished 
to  members. 


T 


WATEIi-POWKI!. 


Water-power  in  many  of  the  States  is  ahundant,  and 
contributes    largely    to    their   prosperity.     Its  proper 


wmmm 


i 


I 


T 


(lovolopiiiont  calls  for  the  sorvices  of  the  iJivil 
Kn,i!,'iiio('r.  ninl  ns  it  is  tlio  hriinrh  of  the  iirofcssion 
with  which  1  am  most  fiimiliar.  1  propose  to  offer 
a   few   remarks  on   the  suhject. 

The  earliest,  applications  were  to  .ii;rist  and  saw 
mills;  cai'din^' iinil  fullin<;' mills  soon  followed.  These 
were  essentiid  to  the  cond'ort  of  the  earlv  settlers, 
who  ndied  on  hom<'  indnstiies  for  shelter,  food  and 
(dothin.ij,-.  hut  with  the  i)ro,ures>  of  the  conntry 
Clime  other  rei|nirt'ment.>. 

The  i'arliest  ap])lication  of  water-po.ver  to  <i(>ner;d 
mannfacturin^'  |)nr[)oses.  ap[)ears  to  have  heen  at 
Paterson,  New  Jersey,  where  ••  The  Society  lor 
Kstahlishin;^'  Usefnl  Mannfuctiu'es"  wiis  foimed.  in 
the  yeni-  IT'.M.  The  l*;iss;dc  lliver  at  this  point 
fnrnishes.  when  at  mlnimnm.  ahoiit  eleven  hundred 
horse-power,  eontinn«)iisly.   ni^ht  and  <l;iy. 

The  water-power  at  Lowell,  Massichusetts,  was 
hegini  to  lu'  improved  for  u'cneral  manufacturinj;" 
j)nri)oses  in  lSi"J.  The  iMerrimack  IJIver  at  this 
point  has  a  fall  of  thirty-live  feet,  and  furnishes,  at 
a  minimum,  ahout  len  thousand  horse-power,  during 
tln'  usual   working  hours. 

At  (Johoes,  in  the  State  of  New  York,  the  Mohawk 
IJivi'r  has  a  fall  of  about  one  hundred  and  live  feet, 
which  was  hrought  into  use,  systematically,  very 
."^oon  after  that  at  Lowell,  and  could  furnish  alxmt 
foui'teen  thousand  horse-[)ower  during  the  usual 
working  hours,  hut  the  works  are  so  arranged  that 
part  of  the  power  is  not  available  at  present.' 

At  Manchester,  New  Hampshire,  the  present  works 
were  commenced    in     iSoO.     The    Merrinuick    River 


I 


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6 

at  this  point  liax  a  fall  of  alxnil  fifty-two  feet, 
iiiid  fiiniislios,  at  a  iiiiniiniiin,  jilioiit  ten  thonsand 
horse-jjower,  during  the  iisumI  working  hours. 

At  Lawrence,  Massachusetts,  tiie  Kssex  Couipany 
huilt  a  dam  across  the  MerriiniU'U  Hiver,  eonnnencing 
in  1845,  and  niid\ing  a  fall  of  about  twenty-eight 
feet,  and  a  nunimuni  power,  (hn-ing  tlie  usual  working 
hours,  of  about  ten  thousand  horse-power. 

At  Ilolvoke,  Massachusetts,  the  Iladley  Falls 
Company  conuuenced  their  works  about  IS  15,  for 
develo[)ing  the  |)ower  of  the  Connecticut  River  at 
that  point,  where  tiiere  is  a  fall  of  about  lifty  feet, 
and  at  a  minimum,  about  seventeen  thousand  horse- 
power, during  the  usual  working  hours. 

At  Lewiston,  Maine,  the  fall  in  the  Androscoggin 
River  is  about  (iftv  feet.  Its  svstematie  development 
was  commenced  about  1845.  and  with  the  improve- 
ment of  the  large  natural  reservoirs  at  the  head-waters 
of  the  river,  now  in  progress,  it  is  expected  that  a 
minimum  power,  during  the  usual  working  hours,  of 
about  eleven   thousand   horse-power  will   be  obtained. 

At  Birmingham,  Connecticut,  the  Ousatonic  Water 
Com{)any  have  developed  the  water-power  of  the 
Flousatonic  River  l)y  a  dam,  giving  twenty-two  feet 
fall,  furnishing,  at  a  minimum,  about  one  thousand 
horse-power,  during  the  usual  working  hours. 

The  Dundee  Water  and  Land  Company,  al)out 
1858,  developed  the  power  of  the  Passaic  River,  at 
Passaic,  New  Jersey,  where  there  is  a  fall  of  about 
twenty-two  feet,  giving  a  minimum  power,  during 
the  usual  working  hours,  of  altout  nine  hundred 
horse-power. 


i 


t 


'V\w  Tiinu'r'H  Falls  CoiujHiny,  in  ISfWi,  comiucnced 
tlic  (li'Vi'l()i)iiu'iit  ol"  the  |)()\v'('r  of  the  Coiiiu'cticut 
Uivcr  at  'I'linu'i's  Kails,  iMassa(;lmsetts,  l»y  Itiiildinj; 
a  (lain  on  the  Middle  Fall,  vvhi(di  is  about  thirty-livo 
i'eot,  and  fiirnisht's  a  niinimutn  power,  <lurin<^  the  usual 
workinjr  hours,  of    about    ten    thousand  horse-power. 

1  have  named  the  above  water-powers  as  being 
developed  in  a  systematio  manner  from  their  ineep- 
tion,  and  of  whieh  1  have  been  able  to  obtain 
some  data.  In  the  usual  [jrooess  of  developing 
a  large  water-power,  a  company  is  formed  who 
acquire  the  title  to  the  property,  embracing  the  land 
necessary  for  the  site  of  the  town  to  accommodate 
the  po[)ulation,  which  is  sure  to  gather  around  an 
improved  water-power.  The  dam  and  canals  or  races 
are  constructed,  and  mill-sites  with  accom])anying 
rights  to  the  use  of  the  water,  are  granted,  usually  by 
perpetual  leases,  subject  to  annual  rents.  This  method 
of  developing  water-power  is  distinctly  an  American 
idea,  and  the  only  instance  where  it  has  been 
attempted  abroad,  that  I  know  of,  is  at  Bellegarde, 
in  France,  where  there  is  a  fall  in  the  Rhone  of 
about  thirtv-three  feet.  Within  the  last  few  years 
works  have  been  constructed  for  its  development, 
furnishing  a  large  amount  of  ])ower,  but  from  the 
great  outlay  incurred  in  acijuiring  the  titles  to  the 
property,  and  other  dilUculties,  it  has  not  been  a 
linancial  success. 

The  water-powers  I  have  named  are  but  a  suiall 
fraction  of  the  whole  amount  existing  in  the  United 
States  and  the  adjoining  Dominion  of  Canada.  There 
is  jSia<rara,  with   its  two  or  three  millions    of    horse- 


£■] 


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8 


St.   L 


nwriMU'o,  \vi 


til   its  succi'ssion  ot   I'nils 


p()W(M' ;    t 

I'roiii  riiikc  Ontario  to  Moiitrciil ;  tlic  Knlls  of  St. 
Antlionv.  iit  .Mimicnpolis  ;  mikI  iiiiiny  otlicr  talis  with 
lar"i'  volunu>s  of  walcc  on  tlio  ii|)ii«'r  Mississij)!)!  and 
its  hiatu'iii's.  It  \voni<l  In'  a  lonj;'  story  to  nanio  even 
till'  lar.ue  \vater-j)owers,  and  the  smaller  ones  are 
almost  innnmeral)le.  in  tlie  State  of  Maine  a  survey 
of  the  water-power  has  reeently  l)e«Mi  made,  the 
result,  as  stated  in  the  oirKtial  report,  l)einu;  ••  hetween 
one  and  two  millions  of  iiorse-|)(Avers."  part  of  whicdi 
will  prohaitly  not  he  availahle.  There  is  an  elevated 
reijion  i»»  tlie  northern  part  of  the  South  Atlantic 
States,  excei'dinj:-  in  area  one  hundred  thousand 
s(iuare  miles,  in  which  there  is  a  vast  ainonnt  of 
water-power,  and  hcing  near  the  eotton-lields,  witii 
a  (ine  tdimatc,  free  from  mahnia,  its  only  needs  are 
railways,  eapital  and  population,  to  herome  a  «i,-reat 
manufaeturin<j;  section. 

The    di'si<^n    and    coiHlruction    of     the    works    lor 

developing  a    larji'e    water-power,   together    with    the 

necessary  arran.gements  for  utili/inu' it  and  providinj,' 

for    its    suhdi vision     anion*--    the    parties    entitled    to 

it.    according  to    their    respective    rights,    affords    an 

extensive!    lield    for  Civil    Kngineers ;    and   in   view  of 

the  vast    amount   of    it    yet    undevelop(Ml.   hut    which 

with  the   increase    of    population  and  the  constantly 

increasing  (U'mand    for    nu'(dianical   power,  as  a  suh- 

stitute  for  hand-lalxu-,  must  conu'  into  use,  the   fudd 

must  continue;  to    eidarge    for  a   long  time  to  conu'. 

There    are     many     cases     in    wiiich    the   power    of 

a    waterfall    may    he    made    availal)le     hy     means    ot 

compressed     air.     more    conveniently     than     hy     the 


i 


^.-  -'«sfi&EW."pe>» 


r^mm 


9 


onliniU'v  motors.  'I'lic  lull  iiiav  Ik'  loo  siiiiill  to  he 
iililizi'd  l)_\  llic  onl,,  .iv  motors;  the  site  wliere 
till!  power  is  wanted  may  \n:  too  distant  I'rom  the 
waterfall,  or  it  may  In-  desired  to  disti-ihiite  the 
power  ill  small  amounts  at  distant   points. 

A  method  ol'  compressing;  air  hy  means  of  a  fall 
of  water,  has  heen  devised  hy  Mr.  .Josei)h  1*.  Frizell, 
C.  K.,oi  St.  I'aul,  Minnesota,  wliieh  from  the  extreme 
simplieity  of  the  apparatus  promises  to  (ind  useful 
a})plications.*  The  principle  on  which  it  operates  is 
hy  carryin;^'  the  air  in  small  huhl)les  in  a  eurrent 
of  water  down  a  vertical  shaft,  to  the  depth  ^'ivin^- 
» the  desired  compression,  then  through  a  horizontal 
passage  in  which  the  huhhies  rise  into  a  reservoir 
near  the  top  of  this  passage,  the  water  passing  on 
and  rising  in  another  vertical  or  inclined  passage, 
at  the  top  of  which  it  is  discharged,  of  course  at  ii 
lower  level   than   it  entered   the  lirst  shaft. 

The  formation  at  waterfalls  is  usually  rock,  which 
would  enahle  the  passages  and  the  reservoir  for 
collecting  the  compressed  air  to  he  formed  hy  simple 
excavations,  with  no  other  apparatus  than  that 
re(|ulre(l  to  ''liarjic  the  descending  column  of  water 
with  the  huhhies  of  air,  which  can  he  done  hy 
throwing  the  water  into  violent  commotion  at  its 
entrance,  and  a  pipe  and  valve  for  the  delivery  of 
the  air  from  the  reservoir. 

The  transfer  of  power  hy  electricity  is  one 
of  the  [)rohlems  now  engaging  the  attention  of 
electricians,  and  it  is  now  done  in  Eui'ope  in  a  small 


•Joiirniil  111'  till-  l''i:uiUliii  InsliliiU'  Idr  Soiitcmbi'r,  laTI 


'  4 


MUiW'tMia  «"».<w<r.M»it^iiiiinfc-M>KTiFii aS*;: 


10 


A-'- 


wnv.  Sir  William  riioinp^oii  stiitod  in  ovidoiice 
beioro  an  Knn-lisli  ['arliaiiiontiirv  Coninultoe,  two 
yoars  ago,  that  he  "' ioolu'd  forward  to  the  Falls  of 
••  Niagara  being  extensively  used  for  the  production 
"of  light  and  mechanical  power  over  a  large  area  of 
''North  America."  and  that  a  copper  wire,  half  an 
inch  in  diameter,  would  transmit  twenty-one  thousand 
horse-power  from  Niagara  to  Montreal,  Boston,  New 
York  or  riiiladelphia.  His  statements  appear  to 
have  been  based  on  tneoretical  considerations,  but 
there  is  no  longer  any  doubt  as  to  the  possibility  of 
transferring  power  in  this  manner;  its  practicability 
for  industrial  purposes  must  be  (k'termined  by  trial. 
Dr.  Paget  liiggs.  a  di>tinguished  English  electrician, 
is  now  experimenting  on  it  in  the  City  of  New 
York. 

Great  improvements  in  reaction  watrr-wheels  have 
been  made  in  tlie  Tniicd  States  within  the  last 
fortv  vears.  In  the  vear  J8  11  the  late  Uriah 
Atherton  I5oyden.  a  civil  engineer  of  Massachusetts, 
connneuced  the  design  and  construction  of  Four- 
ne\'ron  Turbines,  in  which  he  iiitroiliiccd  various 
improvements  and  a  genei'al  |)erfi'ction  of  form  and 
workman>hip,  which  enabled  a  larger  per  centage 
of  the  theoretical  power  of  the  watei'  to  l)e  utilized 
than  had  been  previously  ntlained.  The  great  results 
detained  by  Hoyib'U  with  water-wheels,  made  in 
his  pe"fecr  manner,  and  in  some  instauc<'s  almost 
reuardless  of  cost,  imdoulttediv  stimulated  others  to 
atten)]»t  to  apj)roximate  to  these  results  at  less  cost, 
and  there  are  now  many  forms  of  wheel  of  low 
cost,  giving  fully  double  the   ])ower    with    the    isanie 


»  ♦ 


wm 


jMin'iinni — t-"-Tiri 


11 


consnniption  of  water,  that  was  ohtaintMl  from  most 
of  the  older  forms  of  wliccls  of  tlio  sauu!  class. 


x\NCI10K    ICE. 


i 


A  frequenl  incoiivcniciice  in  tlie  use  water-])owor 
in  cold  climates  is  tliiit  j)eculiar  form  of  ice  called 
anchor  or  txround  ice.  it  adheres  to  stones,  gravel, 
wood  Jind  (.tlier  substances  formini;-  the  beds  of 
streams,  the  channels  of  conduits,  and  orifices  throuii'li 
which  water  is  drawn  ;  sometimes  raising  the  level 
of  water  courses  many  feet  by  its  accumulation 
on  the  bed.  and  entirelv  (dosinu;  small  orifices  throuuch 
which  water  is  drawn  for  industrial  purposes.  I 
have  been  for  many  years  in  a  position  to  observe 
its  effects,  and  the  conditions  under  which  it  is 
formed. 

The  essential  conditions  ar(>.  that  the  temperature 
of  the  water  is  nt  its  frce/ing  point,  and  that  of 
the  air  btdow  tluit  point  :  the  surface  of  the  water 
must  be  exposed  to  the  air,  and  there  must  be  a 
current  in  the  water. 

The  ice  is  formed  in  small  needles  on  t!ie  surface 
which  would  remain  there  and  for^n  a  sheet  if  the 
surface  was  not  too  nuudi  agitated,  except  for  a 
current  or  movement  in  the  body  of  water  sutlicient 
to  maintain  it  in  a  constant  state  of  intermixture. 
Kven  when  llowing  in  a  regular  channel,  there  is  a 
continued  interchiinge  of  ])osition  of  the  different 
parts  of  a  stream  :  the  rettirdation  t)f  the  l)ed  causes 
variations  in  the  velocity,  whi(di  produce  Avhirls  and 


./ 


Br 

I 


.*- 


I'- 


12 


eiHios  and  a  <::enoral  instability  in  the  niovoniont 
of  the  water  in  different  parts  of  the  section.  The 
result  being  that  the  water  at  the  bottom  soon  finds 
its  way  to  the  surface,  and  the  reverse.  1  found  by 
experiments  on  straight  canals,  in  earth  and  masonry, 
that  colored  water  discharged  at  the  bottom,  reached 
the  surface  at  distances  varying  from  ten  to  thirty 
times  the  depth.* 

In  natural  water-courses,  in  which  the  beds  are 
always  more  or  less  irregular,  the  disturbance  would 
be  much  greater.  The  result  is  that  the  water  at 
the  surface  of  a  rumiing  stream  does  not  renuiin 
there,  and  when  it  leaves  the  surface  it  carries  with 
it  the  needles  of  ice.  the  specific  gravity  of  which 
differs  but  little  from  that  of  the  water,  which 
combined  with  their  small  si/e,  allows  them  to 
be  carried  by  the  currents  of  water  in  alnujst  any 
direction.  The  converse  effect  takes  place  in  muddy 
streams.  The  mud  is  app;u-ently  held  in  suspension, 
but  is  only  prevented  from  subsiding  by  the  constant 
intermixture  of  the  dilTerent  parts  of  the  stream. 
When  the  current  ceases  the  mud  sinks  to  the 
bottom;  the  earthy  particles  composing  it  being 
heavier  than  water,  would  sink  in  still  water  in 
times  inversely  projiortional  to  their  size  and  specific 
o-ravitv. 

This,  T  think,  is  a  satisfactory  explanation  of  the 
manner  in  wlTuih  the  ice  formed  at  the  surface  finds 
its  way  to  the  bottom.  Its  adherence;  to  the  bottom, 
I  think,  is  explained  by  the  phenomenon  of  reyelatlon^ 


1 


•Paper  CLX.  in  the  Tr:n)sa<'ti(ins  nt  Um'  Sdcifly,  1^78.  Vol.  vii.;  pages  109— 1C8. 


13 


first,    observed    by    Faraday.      He   found    that   when 
the    wetted    surfaces    of    two    pieces    of    ice    were 
pressed    together     they    froze     together,    and     that 
this    took    phice    under   water  even  when  above  the 
freezing    point.     Professor    James    D.    Forbes   found 
that    the    same     thing    occurred    by    mere    contact, 
without  pressiu'c,  and  that  ice  would  become  attached 
to  other  substances  in  a  simihar  manner.     RegeLition 
was    observed    by    these    philosophers    in     carefully 
arranged  experiments,  with  prepared  surfaces  fitting 
togetlier  accurately,  and  kept  in  contact  sufficiently 
long  to  allow  the    freezing    together   to    take    place. 
In  nature    these    favorable    conditions    would  seldom 
occur  in  the  masses  of  ice  commonly  observed ;  but 
we    must    admit,    on    the    evidence    of    the    recorded 
experiments,     that    under    particular    circumstances 
pieces  of  ice  will  freeze  together,  or  adhere  to  other 
substances,    in    situations    where    there    can    be    no 
abstraction  of  h(>at. 

When  a  piece  of  ice,  of  considerable  size,  comes 
in  contact,  under  water,  with  ice  or  other  substance, 
it  would  usually  touch  in  an  area  very  small  in 
proportion  to  its  mass;  and  other  forces  acting  upon 
it,  and  tending  to  move  it,  would  usually  exceed 
tlie  freezing'-  force  and  regelation  would  not  take 
place.  In  the  minute  needles  formed  at  the  surface 
of  the  water,  the  tendency  to  adhere  would  be  much 
the  siime  as  in  larger  masses  touching  at  points 
only,  wliile  the  external  forces  acting  upon  them 
would  be  extremely  small  in  proportion,  and  regela- 
tion would  oftt'u  occur,  and  of  the  immense  number 
of  the  needles  of  ice  formed  at  the  surface,  enough 


14 


would  adhere  to  produce  the  effect  which  wo  observe, 
and  call  anchor  ice.'  The  adherence  of  the  ice  to 
the  bed  of  the  stream,  or  other  objects,  is  always 
down  stream  from  the  place  where  they  are  formed. 
In  large  streams  it  is  frequently  many  miles  below. 
A  large  part  of  them  do  not  become  fixed,  but  as 
they  come  in  contact  with  each  other,  relegate  and 
form  spongy  masses,  often  of  a  considerable  size, 
which  drift  along  witli  the  current,  and  are  often 
troublesome  impediments  to  the  use  of  water-power. 
Water-powers  supplied  directly  from  ponds,  or 
rivers  or  canals  frozen  over  for  a  Ion*'*  distance 
inmiediately  above  the  places  from  which  the  water 
is  drawn,  are  not  usuallv  troubled  with  anchor 
ice,  which,  as  I  have  stated,  requires  o])en  water 
up-stream  for  its  formation. 


i 


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1 

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